[A synopsis from a political and religio-sociological perspective]

Rev. Father A. Maximiadis

WARNING:

This article contains historic images

depicting war-time violence.

~ PREAMBLE ~

In popular parlance, it is believed that the origins of the Great War (1914-18) ensued from the controversial assassination, at Sarajevo (Сарајево); on 28 June 1914 (v.i.). Archduke Franz Ferdinand von Österreich-Este of Austria, and his morganatic wife Sophie (née Chotkova), the Duchess of Hohenberg (Herzogin von Hohenberg); were assassinated by young Bosnians. Young Bosnians dedicated to liberating their homeland from the Austro-Hungarian rule.

The assassination was the catalyst that acted like a desperate fuel to a series of volatile issues. For example, national rivalry, colonial and commercial disputes, amidst the tangled politics of continental Europe; that had been brewing up for a very long time leading up to the 20-century. Behind the façade of idealism and a determined esprit de corps lied lust for conquest; and forceful acquisition from the vanquished. Moreover, the destruction of cultural identities, divisions of nation states; and booty among the victors.

This thesis includes many centuries of broad-brush strokes in the historic landscape in the Mecca to Sarajevo timeline. These form a continuum of wars feeding off each other that constituted a far larger picture beyond the single brushstroke of that June attentat.

The decision was taken to begin this story (ἱστορία) at Mecca in Saudi Arabia, a beeline distance of 1,962 miles (3,157.5 km) to Sarajevo. The decisive point in the overall story from where the origin of the zeitgeist that led to the Great War. There are numerous continuous parallel narratives, within the Mecca to Sarajevo timeline. These parallels have been purposefully omitted to avoid an informational quagmire, which would detract from the central continuum of the story. Also, saturate the article with superfluous details. Data has been extrapolated from the most authoritative sources, including academics and aficionados. Affixing specific transitional dates – observing contemporary rules – to some of the data was difficult, due to the varying points of view. For example, lack of consensus amongst scholars, determining the precise beginning and end, of the mid-twentieth century Italian agglomeration, or il Risorgimento Italiano, of self-ruling states on the Italian Peninsula 1. Included also is the early discussion of the Roman and Byzantine Empires. Differing points of view, regarding the annihilation of the Jews during the Crusades. Professor Madden (Saint Louis University), suggested: “Many acts of cruelty waged against the Jews in the Rhineland, but not at the behest of Urban or any subsequent popes. Urban censured the renegade elements, amongst the Crusaders, but, unfortunately, they were ignored”. 2. Alternative reading of David Shyovitz, Ph.D. (University of Pennsylvania) partially agrees with Madden, in that the Pope did condemn, “attacks on Jews,” but argues:

“Is important to note that while the Pope occasionally condemned these attacks on Jews, the condemnations were neither vocal nor frequent. Moreover, the lack of any punishment or reprisals against the violators of the Pope’s orders gave the rioters implicit approval, and the attacks continued during the next seven crusades in the 12th and 13th centuries”.

Both arguments ought to be rationalized, acknowledging the undeniable anti-Semitic ambience prevalent in continental Europe et al., at that time; and indeed in some places even today. 3. Additionally, there were also difficulties, drawing definitive lines as to either the beginnings or ends of particular periods. Furthermore, the concept of ‘nation state’ was absent in the Medieval mindset (c. 1000 to 1450AD). The term did not come into usage, in the socio-political vocabulary, until the 19-century. For example, the conquered territories, in the so-called “Balkans” were identified according to distorted boundaries, subsequent to invasions by alien conquers, who enforced their cultural values to the detriment of the indigenous peoples. The name, i.e., Balkans, was an invention by a German geographer, Johann August Zeune in 1806 who was a lecturer at the Berlinisches Gymnasium, zum Grauen Kloster. 4. Territories were identified according to distorted boundaries, subsequent to invasions by alien conquers, who enforced their cultural values to the detriment of the indigenous peoples. Data from historical studies may be open to interpretation. Wading through maps poses problems in delineating actual geopolitical boundaries; subsequent to the renaming of various districts in the ensuing centuries. Therefore, this thesis ought not to be understood as anti-status quo of the writings of the universally accepted discourses; by experts in the field. The reader ought to consider this article as an approximation, rather than a definitive article on the subject. The reader would be well-advised to research academic sources for more accurate information. Furthermore the reader may finds, at least some degree, of logical consistency in these chronological events, that link to form the essential story of The Origins Of The Great War.

“Der Krieg ist nichts als eine Fortsetzung des politischen Verkehrs mit Einmischung anderer Mittel”.
“War is nothing but a continuation of politics with the admixture of other means”.
Karl von Clausewitz (1780- 1831)Von
Kriege (1832-4) bk. 8, ch. 6, sect. B.

~ Part One ~

The Precursor: The Islamic Expansionist Champaign(614-1453).

The ‘story’ begins at the time the “prophet” Muhammad,[also spelt Mohammed or Mahomet] who was born in the Arabian City of Mecca c. 570AD and died in Medina c. 632AD; who was the founder of Islam.

In January 630AD, Muhammad seized the cities of Mecca (Makkah al-Mukarramah), and the Arabian subcontinent (Ǧazīrat al ‘Arab). These seizures were the first occasions a ǧihād (“Holy War”) was staged. The concept of ǧihād was a component of the “prophet’s” teachings from the very beginning; as recorded in the Quar’an, e.g., “… Fight and slay the Pagans wherever ye find them, and seize them, beleaguer them, and lie in wait for them in every stratagem [of war]” (Qur’an, 9:5).

A theological concept of ǧihād was foreign to the Christian mindset until the time of Saint Augustine (circa 354-430), and Thomas Aquinas (c. 1225-74). Both Augustine in his ‘City of God’ ^5. and Aquinas in his ‘Summa Theologica,’ ^6. suggested the doctrine of ‘Just War’ (Bellum iustum) to defend the Christian Empire. Notwithstanding the activities (or “holy wars”) of the Crusades (v.i.), the undeserving affirmative portrayal of war as “holy,” is a gross contradiction to Christian thought. Whether or not the activities of the Crusaders was mitigatory or militated, exercise against the nefarious infidels or an opportunistic attack on Byzantine Christians; and among other things wanton destruction of Constantinople. These are contradictory to Augustine and Aquinas’ doctrines. And furthermore, to the modern rules, of ‘just war,’ which are, quintessentially, towards maintenance of international justice and peace.

Subsequent to Muhammad’s death (c. 632AD), his expansionist campaigns were based upon wars of conquest rather than defence. They had a clear Quar’anic mandate of continued expansionism and economics to Islamised all countries under a continued leadership of the Khilāfas (خلافة), i.e., ‘Successors’. Namely Abdullah ibn Abi Quhafa, Umar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb et al., in the 839-year militant campaigns; beyond the borders of Arabia. The Khilāfas moved aggressively, with fire and sword, into other countries, during hostile sectarian and political disputes amongst themselves, e.g., Shīʿah and Sunnī branches of Islam. In a period of 104-years, they laid siege to Jerusalem (Ἱεροσόλυμα) (614). Jerusalem is the epicenter of the main Abrahamic beliefs viz: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. 7. Professor Eric H. Cline, George Washington University, Washington, DC; says: ‘Jerusalem, throughout its history, has been razed to the ground twice, laid sieged to 23-times, attacked 52-times, and recaptured 44-times’. 8. The concept of ‘Islam as a religion and a state,’ (‘al-Islam dinun was dawlatun’) is nowhere to be found in the Quar’an or the Aḥādīth collection. This concept of the rule was invented by the Salafi movement as a slogan, in the second half of the 19-century, to further their political ambitions.

Following the siege of Jerusalem in 614, the Khilāfas seized Palestine (Παλαιστίνη) (635) and Damascus (Δαμασκός); subsequent to the battle at the Yarmük River (636). Other territories that were laid sieged to included: Mesopotamia (Μεσοποταμία), at the Battle of al-Qadisiyyah (637); which they renamed ‘Irāq’.

The Khilāfas within 79-years seized hold of Armenia (Ἀρμένιος) (639), Egypt (Αἴγυπτος) (641), the Pentapolis (Πέντεπόλις) (643-44) in Italy, andCappadocia (Καππαδοκία) (644) in Anatolē (Ἀνατολή) (637). ^9. Between 638 and 650, they seized Irān (Περσίς), Sūryā (Ἀσσυρία) (639-642), Cyprus (Κύπρος) (643-650). North Africa (647-709), Afġānistān (642–870 (q.l.)). And Sind [Ba’ab-ul-Islam] Pākistān, the lower Indus Valley; and Spain (España) (711-718 (q.l.)). The Khilāfas campaigns included the sieges of Constantinople (Κωνσταντινούπολις), first between 674-678, ^10. followed by the second in 717-718, ^11. and thirdly between 8 and 12 April, 1204. The Khilāfas’ ambitions were then extended to the seizure of the territories of continental Europe and the Balkans en route from Constantinople. However, they were thwarted by the efforts of Emperor Leo III – Pope from 795 to 816 – who defended the walls of the imperial city from 15 August 717 to 15 August 718. Their campaign, to seize continental Europe, concluded subsequent the Battle of Tours (Ma‘arakat Balâṭ ash-Shuhadâ, Battle of the Court of the Martyrs). Also called: The Battle of Poitiers (معركة بلاط الشهداء)‎, in north-central France; in October 732 or 733. ^12.

However, this situation reversed when the Seljuk Turks, overpowered Asia Minor (Μικρὰ Ἀσία, i.e., ‘Small Asia’), at the battle at Malâzgird in eastern Turkey (1071). ¹³ Eastern Christendom was in a precarious position. The reduction of the Byzantine boundaries and its leadership as a world power was now reduced to a minor Hellenic State struggling for its survival. ^14. The historic record reveals the magnitude of Islam’s 839-year militant Campaign to conquer other territories beyond the borders of Arabia; from the siege of Jerusalem in 614.

The Byzantive Empire.

The Roman Empire (Imperivm Romanvm) flourished from circa 499BC  until c. 400AD, during which time its capital relocated to Byzantium (Βυζάντιον) in 330AD, where it evolved into the most influential cultural, economic and military force until 1453 (q.l.). Christians had maintained a presence there dating back to the second-century. ^_15. Greek culture influenced the new capital new capital – its monotheistic religious beliefs and practices, and the Greek language – as distinct from the Latin-speaking Romans and their pagan polytheistic beliefs and practices. Between the ninth and tenth centuries, Constantinople reached a population of 400,000 (q.l.) and had burgeoned into the largest and wealthiest metropolis than continental Europe. ^_16. Professor Mark Mazower (Birkbeck College, London, and former professor, history department, Princeton University) wrote:

“By 1600, Constantinople was the largest city in Europe; even if we accept a low estimate of 250,000 inhabitants, it still overshadowed London (200,000), Paris (220,000) and Rome (105,000). Berlin (25,000), Madrid and Vienna (both 50,000) were unremarkable towns of the middling rank … ^_17.

The denominated “Byzantines” was a historiographical description the inhabitants didn’t recognize. It didn’t come into usage by historians until the 18-century. The inhabitants depicted themselves as ‘Romaioi,’ or ‘Romans,’ (Ρωμαίοι) citizens of the Roman Empire (Βασιλεία Ῥωμαίων) until the establishment of the neo-Hellenic state in 1832.

Furthermore, the Hellenes (Ἑλληνες) or Dōrieis (Δωριεῖς), had established their Hellenistic civilization at Constantinople in the seven-century BC ^18. as a Doric colony.  They named the colony after their king Byzas, and indeed, had also established the highly defined Ionic culture, on the coast of Asia Minor. ‘Asia Minor,’ now ‘Turkey,’ is a part of ‘Asia’ which is geographically apart from continental Europe. Bridging Asia Minor to Continental Europe with the ‘Bosphorus’ (Boğaziçi Köprüsü) and the ‘Fatih Sultan Mehmet’ (F.S.M. Köprüsü) bridges does not make ‘Asia Minor’ a part of Europe. Nor does it change the historical cartogramme or the geopolitical definition of ‘Asia Minor’. It does not follow that today’s Turkey is part of continental Europe. Quite clearly – ethnocentricity aside – east is east and west is west.

The new capital was inaugurated ‘Constantinople’ – the “New Rome” – by Constantine the Great, in 330AD; ^19.moreover, remained the epicentre, and influence, of the Christian world for 874-years (q.l.). There was a mutual relationship between the supranational church and the multinational empire. During this period (324-1453) it developed into an advanced social and cultural entity and led to monasticism and the missionary movement. Amongst its architectural achievements were: orphanages, hospitals, forums, arenas, palaces, bazaars, baths, towers, monuments, monasteries and libraries.  Also, the zenith of its achievements, the magnificent Hagia Sophia (Ἁγία Σοφία), i.e., Divine Wisdom, (v.i.). Philosophical and metaphysical literary tradition of classical antiquity were continued and expressed contemporaneously in the sciences. ^{20.  21.} The Hagia Sophia was the noteworthy achievement in architectural design and was most influential in both Western church, and mosque constructions, from far away as Russia, South Africa, Egypt, and Arabia.

Other contributions were in the fields of astronomy, mathematics and jurisprudence. 22. Modification, and new legal codes, e.g., Ecloga (᾽Εκλογή τω̑ν νόμων, i.e., “selection of the laws”), issued by Leo III and Constantine V in March 741. The Roman Law (Corpus Juris Civilis) become Byzantine Law for contemporary usage; the influence of which spread beyond the Byzantine borders. 23. There was also the furtherance of classical theories, ecclesiastical unification; through the formulation of creeds and dogmas of the Christian church. Through the three of the seven Great Oecumenical Councils convened between 381 to 680; at Constantinople. 24. The University of Constantinople then called: ‘The Palace Hall of Magnaura’ (‘Πανδιδακτήριον της Μαγναύρας’), now in ruins, was arguably the first university, predating those of continental Europe. It had secular curricula of learning founded under the name: ‘Pandidakterion‘ (Πανδιδακτήριον), by Emperor Theodosius II; in 425. 25.

The ‘Pandidakterion’ included faculties of mathematics, astronomy, geometry, jurisprudence, philosophy, music, metaphysics, law and medicine, and was surrounded by other institutions e.g., schools, polytechnics, colleges and academies of fine arts as well as other branches of learning (apart from theology) which flourished – as coeducational schools – down to the fall of the city to the Ottoman Turks; 29 May, 1453. The Western Church copied many liturgical practices of the Orthodox Church. For example the Divine Liturgy of Saint John Chrysostom (Η Θεια Λειτουργια του Αγιου Ιωαννου του Χρυσοστομου) c. 347-407. Known in the West as the ‘Mass’ (‘Missa’). The Byzantines excelled in mosaics, frescos, and iconography. The celebrated 15-century Byzantine icon marked: MP-ΘΥ (Μήτηρ Θεού, Mother of God). Western Christians are quite familiar with this icon. The other marks on this image include OAM (Áρχάγγελος Μιχάλης, Archangel Michael); OAΓ (Áρχάγγελος Γαβριήλ, Archangel Gabriel), and Iς-Xς (Ἰησοῦς Χριστός, Jesus Christ). [Ultra-violet and Carbon-14-testing puts the icon between 1325-1480] Pope Pius IX renamed the icon: ‘Mater de Perpetuo Succursu’ (Mother of Perpetual Succour). The image has been in the church of Sant’Alfonso de Liguori all’Esquilino since 1499. The Italian Renaissance achievements were not without the benefits from Byzantine literature, scholarship, and artists who migrated to Italy subsequent to the fall of Constantinople (1453). ^{26. 27.}

Byzantines, and their neighbours (Bulgarians, Kievan Rus, Khazarians and, the Magyars), had been defending themselves from attacks by hostile Nomadic warriors from circa 499. Namely the Pechenegs (Πετσενέγοι) from the Black Sea region, who were an immediate threat, and the Koumanoi (Κουμάνοι) – also called Kypchaks – a tribal confederation from Greece.

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