~ Part Two  ~

Balkans under The Ottoman Turks.

Prior to the 14-century, the Balkan nations enjoyed national and cultural coalescence. The people’s sense of identity was firmly grounded in the Christian Orthodox Tradition inspiring an extraordinary determination towards their struggles in unifying their nation; beyond the sword of Islam.

Although the Orthodox Tradition was a considerable unifying influence on the Serbians, but not the determining factor. Other factors also played a unifying role, e.g., the Zadruga, i.e., the traditional extended family system, which was the preserver of the continuity of Serbia’s cultural traditions. Additionally, the harmonious integration of language – notwithstanding dialectal variations – and culture. Slaveno-Serbian was the language used by ecclesiastics for their liturgies. Stokavistina was a standardized dialect for media usage in 1835 and was spoken by the Serbs in Slavonia and Bosnia. The Serbs spoke Cakavstina outside of the capital Zagreb, and Kajkavistina in the capital. ^86. Regional communities affected by Natural disasters, border changes et cetera, could also have a coalescing effect in forming a unifying influence. Muslims and the dhimmîs, أهل الذمة, i.e., non-Muslims who were allowed full citizenship provide they payed taxes; while un-proselytized Jews and Christians were socially, and economically, disadvantaged. ^87. The Ottoman military took control of all the arable estates; and farmhands. To be on par with the Ottoman overlords, the majority of the Balkan nobility converted to Islam. Jewish and Christian’s religious practices were disadvantaged compared to those of the Muslims. At law, Jews and Christian didn’t have access to natural justice, e.g., they were not permitted to give evidence against Muslims. They had no statutory rights to ride horses, carry arms, nor reside in premises overlooking Muslims, et cetera. 88. By and large, Orthodox Christians were granted limited rights while simultaneously being deemed ‘inferior subjects’. ^{89. 90.} The Ottoman overlords fragmented the Balkan Peninsula into Albania, Bosnia, Serbia, and Kosovo; subsequent to the 14-century.

The Invitation.

The Governor of the Austrian provinces, General Oskar Potieorek, invited Ferdinand, the Archduke of Austria-Este, and his wife Sophie, the Duchess of Hohenberg (Herzogin von Hohenberg) to attend a military parade. At Sarajevo the Bosnian capital scheduled for 28 June 1914. Ferdinand, was a popular figure amongst the troops, and had been appointed Inspector General of the Austro-Hungarian Army (Generalinspektor Gesamten Bewaffneten Macht) in the previous year (1913). Potieorek assured Ferdinand that Sophie would be granted an official welcome, and the protocol of a royal visit. Elsewhere she was denied these privileges due to the morganatic status of her marriage to Ferdinand. During the wedding (1 July 1900) she was given the title “Princess of Hohenberg (Fürstin von Hohenberg) styled: “Her Serene Highness” (Ihre Durchlaucht). Nine years later her title was upgraded to “Duchess of Hohenberg” (Herzogin von Hohenberg) style: “Her Highness” (Ihre Hoheit). Her status was not raised in the royal hierarchical protocol. Ferdinand, on hearing that Sophie would be given a royal welcome, gladly accepted the invitation.

The Bosnian Serbs, were stretched to the breaking point, under the tyranny of the Austro-Hungarian overlords, and would have considered Ferdinand’s visit a serious impediment to their Pan-Serbian aspirations for union between Bosnia-Herzegovina and Serbia. He was advocating schemes that would inhibit Serbian territorial, or economic expansion, towards unification with Bosnia-Herzegovina. A further impediment was his intention int. al., to implement various concessions, to the Southern Slavs, which would have frustrated the process of achieving Serbian statehood even further. There had been eight assassinations in the Balkans, viz., five crown royals, two heads of state, and a high ranking officer of the Turkish Army. Notwithstanding the history, and the inflammatory atmosphere, the Couple Royal accepted the invitation. None could equal the unimaginable consequences of that June attentat. A consequence that would, indeed, ignite the spark that set the Triple Alliance sc., Austro-Hungary, Germany, and the Ottoman Empire towards Attrition warfare (Great War, 1914-18). That would cost 38,351,000 lives, ^91.precipitating the Triple Entente sc., France, Britain and Russia et al., into a Trench warfare, that lasted for four years, three months and fourteen days. Consequently, Germany was plummeted into a post-war economic depression due to extreme punitive restitution.

Russia’s Tsar Nikolay II, and his family (photograph right) were murdered by the Bolsheviks on the night of 16/17 July 1918, ^92. Eighty-two years later the family was canonised as martyrs; in 1981 and 2000, ^93. after which Russia became the first Communist State, established 30 December 1922 until its disestablishment on 26 December 1991. Since the post-tsarist period, the Vatican developed an increasing enmity towards Bolshevism. The Bolshevik (большевики, i.e., ‘majority’ party) established in 1912. Vladimir Ilyich Lenin (Владимир Ильич Ленин) brought it to power; in October 1917. The name changed to The Russian Communist Party (Росси́йская Коммунисти́ческая Па́ртия) in 1918.

Subsequent to the fall of the Empires, their state boundaries and colonial possessions were re-delineated. These, et alii., set in motion a chain of events that radically changed the world’s socio-political structure whose effects continue to this day.

Ferdinand himself would have been fully aware of the potentially volatile ambience, and the considerable security risk surrounding his visit. For example, eleven years earlier, King Alexander I, and his wife Draga, were assassinated in Belgrade (11 June 1903). Followed by the attempted assassination of General Varesanin (Austrian governor of Bosnia-Herzegovina.) in Sarajevo; seven years later (1910). And Ferdinand, non-obst., the benefit of hindsight, was determined to make the journey.

This date (28 June 1914) was set aside as a Serbian national holiday to commemorate their defeat by the Ottoman Turks, at the Kosovo Polje, q.e., ‘Blackbird Field’ 1389. The most enduring battle in Serbia’s history. ^94. The corpses were left exposed to the elements and wildlife. The Turks had enforced migration in the Balkan nations to alter the demographics in favour of the annihilation of the Serbian nationality, culture; and religion. Consequently, reducing Serbia to an ailing, and fragmented society that lasted well into the 19-century.

Furthermore, it brought an end to Serbian control in the region enabling Ottoman expansion into continental Europe. Serbia was yet another barbarous addition to the chronological history (v.i.) of Islam’s intolerance and violence. The defeat at Kosovo Polje left an indelible impression on the consciousness of the Serbian, Croatian, Montenegrin, and the Southern Slavs.

Subsequent to the 524-year (q.v.) repressive rule, under the Ottoman Turks, the Serbs eventually gained control (19 August 1913) of the Kosovo province. Kosovo was the principal centre of the Serbian Orthodox Church (Српска православна црква). The 28 June was a national holiday in Serbia; a politically sensitive date engraved on the Serbian conscious.

The Assassination.

“Curses are like young chickens, they always come home to roost”.

Robert Southey, ‘The Curse of Kehama’ 1810.

During the journey, Nedjelko Cabrinovic (Недељко Чабриновић), age 19-years, hurled a grenade into the 6-car-open motorcade, wounding a member of the entourage; at 1010hrs. Subsequently, Ferdinand insisted, on continuing the journey until he and Sophie were eventually gunned down, in the official Graf and Stift limousine, by the 20-year-old, asthenic looking, Serbian nationalist Gavrilo Princip; 3-hours later at 1315hrs (q.v.). Ferdinand’s last words were: “Es ist nichts. Es ist nichts” (“It is nothing. It is nothing”.)

The attentat was organized by Colonel Dragutin Dimitrijević (Informal name ‘Apis’ i.e., ‘Bee’.) who eleven years earlier, had been involved in the assassination of King Aleksandar I of Serbia, in the coup d’état on 11 June 1903. This brought an end to the 72-year Obrenovići, (Обреновићи) – also spelt Obrenovich or Obrenovitch – dynasty that ruled Serbia between 1815-42, and 1858-1903. The Obrenovići dynasty was replaced with constitutional monarchies, shared by the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary; by virtue of the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867. King Petar I (Карађорђевић, Karadjordjević) ruled Serbia from 1903 to 1918, and the Croats and Slovenes; from 1918 to 1921. The dual monarchy existed for 51-years until 31 October 1918. Thereafter ruled under its newly appointed name: the “Kingdom of Yugoslavia” (Краљевина Југославија); in 1929.

Two weeks prior to Ferdinand’s visit, the Serbian Government, and the Black Hand Committee, instructed Dimitrijević to rescind his assassination plan. And arrest Gavrilo Princip and his five accomplices: Chabrinovitch, Chubrilovic, Grabezh, Mehmedbashitch, and Cvjetko Popovitch; at the Bosnia border. However, they had clandestinely crossed two weeks beforehand, via an underground corridor. They carried a sugar container of trench-explosive devices (Later identified as the property of the Serbian State), four Browning handguns, and cyanide for the assassins to suicide; to avoid being arrested. The weapons were supplied, in Belgrade, by Lieutenant Tankositch, who was a minor member of the ‘Black Hand’. He had no endorsement from the Serbian Government for this undertaking. The assassins had a four-week presence in Sarajevo, prior to the attentat; ample opportunity for Dimitrijević to have halted the assassins.

Distorting The Balkan Demographics.

The Turks, notwithstanding Islam’s claim: “those who are Jews, and Christians … shall no fear come upon them neither shall they grieve”. (Qur’an, II:62) did, ipso facto, set Serbian towns and villages on fire, razing cathedrals, churches, monasteries to the ground, and on numerous occasions erecting mosques over the rubble. Relics were destroyed. The Turkish Governor, Sinan Pasha, took the preserved mortal remains of Saint Sava from the Basilica at Belgrade, and incinerated them at Vracar; in 1594.

These deeds exceeded territorial expansionist ambitions. They were hostile and intolerant towards Christians and had all the earmarks of an indubitable, offensive, Islamic ǧihād (v.i.); which was first inaugurated, in 662, by Muhammad himself. (v.s.) circa 570 – 632AD. Islam makes no distinction between mosque (Masjid) and state. It maintains a severe form of government at home and aggression in other jurisdictions. The atrocious acts of brutality and destruction meted out to the people in the Balkans et al., exemplifies the true nature of Islam. The above painting, by Paja Jovanović (1895). Portrays the occasion in 1690, when the Serbian Orthodox Patriarch, Arsenije III Carnojevic (Арсеније III Чарнојевић), was driven out from his Archdiocese with 36,000 families; ^95.  surrounded by armed Turkish soldiers.

The Orthodox Churches.

Following the fall of Constantinople there was a move in Russia to establish the see of Moscow from Metropolitan to Patriarchate. A Patriarchate didn’t actualize until 1589. Additionally, there was an unsuccessful attempt to adopt the status of “Third Rome” (or “New Rome”). The marriage of Ivan III (Иван III Васильевич) to Sophia Paleologue (София Фоминична) – niece of Constantine XI the last Byzantine emperor – did not conform to the inheritance ordinances observed by the European monarchies. The Roman protocol would not recognize the inheritance, of Ivan’s heirs, to the regal office. Plans were suggested, by the Holy Roman emperor, Frederick III, to facilitate an alliance with Ivan (in the 1480’s); for a dynastic marriage that Ivan rejected. Furthermore, Ivan assumed the titles of ‘Autocrat’ (Cамодержец) and ‘Czar’ (Царь i.e., ‘Caesar’) independent of the advice of his nobles.

The Greek Orthodox Church was under scrutiny and strict control, by the Turks, until the Greek War of Independence (1821-29), also called the Greek Revolution (Ελληνική Επανάσταση). The Greek primates were rendered powerless during those most difficult times. ^96. The traditional catalyst of the war precipitated on 25 March 1821. By Bishop Germanos III (Πατρών Γερμανός Γ’) when he raised the Greek flag at the Agia Lavra Monastery in the Peloponnese. The auspicious occasion, at the Agia Lavra, injected a new enthusiasm for an uprising that would liberate the Greek homeland from Turkish domination. Subsequently, the Greeks fought successful campaigns – while quarreling among themselves – successfully capturing Athens in June the following year.

The Turkish policy of soi-disant ‘religious tolerance’ was in practice conveniently manipulated towards favourable outcomes for the Turkish autocracy. Other Orthodox churches were transferred to the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate at Constantinople, after which the Bulgarian Orthodox Church entered into a schism between Sofia and Constantinople to gain autonomy from the authority of the Patriarchate. In 1870, the 32nd Sultan Abdülaziz, of the Ottoman Khilāfate, had decreed the formation of an autonomous Bulgarian Exarchate on 28 February 1870. The decree was formally condemned as ‘schismatic,’ at the Council of Constantinople; September 1872. However, the condemnation was revoked 73-years later, under new ecclesiastical Statutes, introduced by Patriarch Benismin I (Βενισμιν Α’); at Constantinople in 1945.

The Greek Orthodox Church announced its autocephaly status on 23 July 1833, and the Romanian Orthodox Church followed in 1864. Both the Bulgarian Exarchate and the Serbian Orthodox Church also declared themselves autocephalous in 1872 and 1879 respectively; thus decreasing the sphere of influence of the Oecumenical Patriarchate.

The Apology.

The charismatic Pope John Paul II (1920-2005) visited Greece, as a persona non grata, and met with Archbishop Christodoulos (1939-2008); in Athens on 4 May 2001. Archbishop Christodoulos was Primate of the Autocephalous Orthodox Church of Greece. John Paul read “13 offences” ^97. committed against the Greek Orthodox Church subsequent to the Great Schism (1054 q.l.) and the ravaging and pillaging of Constantinople by the Fourth and Fifth Crusades between 1203 to 1221. John Paul also recalled the:

“… events of the distant past have left deep wounds in the minds and hearts of people to this day. I am thinking of the disastrous sack of the imperial city of Constantinople, which was for so long the bastion of Christianity in the East. It is tragic that the assailants, who had set out to secure free access for Christians to the Holy Land, turned against their own brothers in the faith …

“From the Apostolic era until now, the Orthodox Church of Greece has been a rich source from which the Church of the West too has drawn for her liturgy, spirituality and jurisprudence (cf. Unitatis Redintegratio, 14). A patrimony of the whole Church are the Fathers, privileged interpreters of the apostolic tradition, and the Councils, whose teachings are a binding element of all Christian faith. The universal Church can never forget what Greek Christianity has given her, nor cease to give thanks for the enduring influence of the Greek tradition”. [sic.]

[Address (in part) of John Paul II to His Beatitude Chritodoulos,
Archbishop of Athens and Primate of Greece. 4 May 2001.]

In response, Christodoulos expressed regrets saying:

“Until now, there has not been heard a single request for pardon … [for the] … maniacal crusaders of the 13th century”. [brackets mine].

To which the Pope replied:

“For the occasions past and present, when sons and daughters of the Catholic Church have sinned by action or omission against their Orthodox brothers and sisters, may the Lord grant us forgiveness” .

After which Christodoulos applauded. The meeting of Christodoulos and the pope hadn’t received approval from the majority of the clergy. Who would have recalled indelible memories of the Catholic Church’s willful aiding and abetting centuries of brutish Turkish [and later German] occupation of Greece, Serbia et al.

“The stupid neither forgive nor forget; the naive forgive and forget; the wise forgive but do not forget”.

Thomas Szasz, ‘The Second Sin‘   (1973) ‘Personal Conduct’.

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